American football and Initial Velocity Essay Example for Free

American football and Initial Velocity Essay 1. A stone is thrown horizontally at a speed of from the edge of a cliff in height. How far from the base of the cliff will the stone strike the ground? 2. A toy truck moves off the edge of a table that is high and lands from the base of the table. a. How much time passed between the moment the car left the table and the moment it hit the floor? b. What was the horizontal velocity of the car when it hit the ground? 3. A hawk in level flight above the ground drops the fish it caught. If the hawk’s horizontal speed is , how far ahead of the drop point will the fish land? 4. A pistol is fired horizontally toward a target away, but at the same height. The bullet’s velocity is . How long does it take the bullet to get to the target? How far below the target does the bullet hit? 5. A bird, traveling at , wants to hit a waiter below with his dropping (see image). In order to hit the waiter, the bird must release his dropping some distance before he is directly overhead. What is this distance? 6. Joe Nedney of the San Francisco 49ers kicked a field goal with an initial velocity of at an angle of . a. How long is the ball in the air? Hint: you may assume that the ball lands at same height as it starts at. b. What are the range and maximum height of the ball? 7. A racquetball thrown from the ground at an angle of and with a speed of lands exactly later on the top of a nearby building. Calculate the horizontal distance it traveled and the height of the building. 8. Donovan McNabb throws a football. He throws it with an initial velocity of at an angle of . How much time passes until the ball travels horizontally? What is the height of the ball after seconds? (Assume that, when thrown, the ball is above the ground. ) 9. Pablo Sandoval throws a baseball with a horizontal component of velocity of . After seconds, the ball is above the release point. Calculate the horizontal distance it has traveled by this time, its initial vertical component of velocity, and its initial angle of projection. Also, is the ball on the way up or the way down at this moment in time? 10. Barry Bonds hits a home run that lands in the stands at an altitude above its starting altitude. Assuming that the ball left the bat at an angle of from the horizontal, calculate how long the ball was in the air. 11. A golfer can drive a ball with an initial speed of . If the tee and the green are separated by , but are on the same level, at what angle should the ball be driven? (Hint: you should use at some point. ) 12. How long will it take a bullet fired from a cliff at an initial velocity of , at an angle below the horizontal, to reach the ground below? 13. A diver in Hawaii is jumping off a cliff high, but she notices that there is an outcropping of rocks out at the base. So, she must clear a horizontal distance of during the dive in order to survive. Assuming the diver jumps horizontally, what is his/her minimum push-off speed? 14. If Monte Ellis can jump high on Earth, how high can he jump on the moon assuming same initial velocity that he had on Earth (where gravity is that of Earth’s gravity)? 15. James Bond is trying to jump from a helicopter into a speeding Corvette to capture the bad guy. The car is going and the helicopter is flying completely horizontally at . The helicopter is above the car and behind the car. How long must James Bond wait to jump in order to safely make it into the car? 16. A field goal kicker lines up to kick a yard field goal. He kicks it with an initial velocity of at an angle of . The field goal posts are meters high. a. Does he make the field goal? b. What is the ball’s velocity and direction of motion just as it reaches the field goal post (i. e. , after it has traveled in the horizontal direction)? 17. In a football game a punter kicks the ball a horizontal distance of yards . On TV, they track the hang time, which reads seconds. From this information, calculate the angle and speed at which the ball was kicked. (Note for non-football watchers: the projectile starts and lands at the same height. It goes yards horizontally in a time of seconds) Answers to Selected Problems 1. 2. a. b. 3. 4. below target 5. . 6. a. . b. 7. 8. seconds, meters 9. ; on the way up 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. seconds 16. a. yes b. @ degrees from horizontal 17. @ degrees.

Knowledge Management Models And Frameworks Commerce Essay

Knowledge Management Models And Frameworks Commerce Essay The purpose of this paper is to critically review the various knowledge management models and frameworks. The review found that various knowledge management models and frameworks varies in perspectives ranging from the basic assumption of the articulation and transfer of tacit and explicit knowledge to the more complex and complicated assumption that knowledge is intellectual capital and it is mechanistic in perspective as well as an important asset that has to be managed efficiently for firms success. In this paper, knowledge management models are divided into three categories: knowledge category models, intellectual capital models, and socially constructed models. Besides, two knowledge management frameworks will be discussed in this paper. Finally, a KM model and framework is tentatively suggested to act as a useful guide for further research and organizational application. Introduction Nowadays, the world is fully experiencing an era, namely: knowledge age or the knowledge economy. In knowledge economy, knowledge is the crucial commodity due to the rapidly technological advancement. The technological innovations are eliminating the gap between competing companies and the collective knowledge of the employees become the key factor in producing innovative and competitive products or services (Sunassee and Sewry, 2002). Since previously managers did not encourage diffusion and sharing of knowledge among employees, changing in mindset is required for managing the knowledge effectively. The knowledge-driven activities in organizations and of the broader economic and social life lead to the management of knowledge become very important (Sunassee and Sewry, 2002). In general, this managerial activity has been known as Knowledge Management (KM). Previous research on knowledge management indicates the existence of various definitions of knowledge management. According to Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995), knowledge management is the capability of a company to create new knowledge, disseminate it throughout the organization and embody it in products, services, and systems. Duffy (1999) defines knowledge management as the identification, growth and effective application of an organisations critical knowledge. Knowledge management has been defined in another term, which is an organized and explicit process to generate, renew, and apply knowledge to maximize an organizations knowledge-related effectiveness and returns from its knowledge assets (Wiig, 1997). Alavi and Leidner (1999) define knowledge management as a systemic and organizationally specified process for acquiring, organizing, and communicating both tacit and explicit knowledge of employees so that other employees may make use of it to be more effective and productive in thei r work. Besides, ODell et al., (1998) define knowledge management as a conscious strategy of getting the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and helping people share and put information into action in ways that strive to improve organizational performance. For instance, Beckman (1999) define knowledge management as the formalization of and access to experience, knowledge and expertise that create new capabilities, enable superior performance, encourage innovation and enhance customer value. In general, KM is the process of creating, storing, distributing, and applying knowledge. By reviewing the significance of knowledge management and the complexity of its nature, it is timely to try to understand the latest theories underlying knowledge and knowledge management. Hence, this paper will critically study the latest models and frameworks of knowledge management and discuss on the assumptions and views of each model and framework. The aim of this paper is to examine the current understanding of the theory and practice of the emerging field of knowledge management by critically evaluating existing knowledge management models and frameworks. Therefore, employers or practitioners in organizations can understand their concepts and improved approaches can be developed and applied to organization and to those who need to work and implement knowledge management. This paper will begin by presenting the aims and objectives and followed with a short discussion on the types of knowledge. This is followed with the discussion on some of the existing knowledge management models and frameworks. Types of Knowledge In todays competitive business environment, only the knowledge of an organization can provide the basis for organizational renewal and sustainable competitive advantages. Organizational knowledge can be classified into two distinctive types of knowledge: explicit and tacit. According to Polanyi (1967), explicit knowledge is the knowledge which is easily to formalize, transfer, and store; documented, articulated into formal language, formally expressible and easily to communicate; tacit knowledge is pertaining to ideas, feelings, and individual experience, which is more complicated and difficult to share with each others. Explicit knowledge is the fact and can be codified and transmitted in a systematic and formal language. It is usually data, which is internal to an organization and can be easily collected. Tacit knowledge is the personal experiences, context-specific knowledge that is difficult to formalize record or articulate. It actually resides in the heads of the people, behavior and perception (Frid, 2000). Examples are intuitions, hunches, insights, beliefs and values. Both tacit and explicit knowledge are needed for an organization to achieve greater performance (Sanchez et. al. 1996). Knowledge Management Models and Frameworks Knowledge Category Models These types of model categorize knowledge into discrete elements. One of the most renowned KM models fits into this category, the Knowledge Spiral model by Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995). This model presents a high level conceptual representation of the knowledge dimensions, namely tacit and explicit knowledge. The model makes a number of assumptions, namely: 1. Tacit knowledge can be transferred through a process of socialization (everyday comradeship) to become the tacit knowledge of others top left quadrant 2. Tacit knowledge can become explicit knowledge through a process of externalization (formalizing a body of knowledge) top right quadrant 3. Explicit knowledge can be transferred into tacit knowledge in others through a process of internalization (translating theories into practice) bottom left quadrant 4. Explicit knowledge can be transferred to explicit knowledge in others through a process of combination (combining existing theories) -bottom right quadrant. One criticism of the model is that knowledge transfer in organizations is much more complicated and convoluted than this simple matrix suggests. The model also assumes an integration of tacit and explicit knowledge; often this is not the case. This model is shown in figure no. 1 below. A simple but more elaborate version of Nonakas model is shown in figure no. 2 (Hedlund and Nonaka, 1993). This model assumes there are four different levels of carriers, or agents, of knowledge in organizations, namely the individual, the group, the organization and the inter-organizational domain (customers, suppliers, competitors, etc.). The above model is helpful by relating the carriers to the types of knowledge; it remains problematic in that it assumes the carriers, like the knowledge, can be simply separated. Another example of a knowledge category model is that of Boisot, (1998), as shown in figure no. 3. Boisots model considers knowledge as codified or uncodified, diffused or undiffused, within an organization. Boisot uses the term codified to refer to knowledge that can be readily prepared for transmission purposes (e.g. financial data). The term uncodified refers to knowledge that cannot be easily prepared for transmission purposes (e.g. experience). The term diffused refers to knowledge that is readily shared while undiffused refers to knowledge that is not readily shared. The model presents the following characteristics: 1. Knowledge categorized as both codified and undiffused is referred to as propriety knowledge. In this case, knowledge is prepared for transmission but is deliberately restricted to a selectively small population, on a need to know basis (e.g. projected profits, share price issues) top left quadrant 2. Knowledge that is relatively uncodified and undiffused is referred to as personal knowledge (e.g. perceptions, insights, experiences) bottom left quadrant knowledge that is both codified and diffused is referred to as public knowledge (e.g. journals, books, libraries) top right quadrant Knowledge which is relatively diffused but also uncodified is labeled common sense bottom right quadrant. Boisot, (1998) considers such knowledge as being built up slowly by a process of socialization, harboring customs and intuition. There are few similarities between Nonakas model and Boisots model. For example, Nonakas categorization of explicit and tacit knowledge has a degree of correspondence with Boisots reference to codified and uncodified knowledge. The horizontal dimension relates to the spread or diffusion of knowledge across the organization in both models. However, Boisots model experiences the same limitations as Nonakas model in that codified and uncodified are but two discrete categories of knowledge. In addition, the idea of diffused knowledge is rather general and it is not clear if it includes incorporating knowledge within the organization, as well as disseminating it. Figure No. 3-Knowledge Category Model (Boisot, 1998) Intellectual Capital Models Management gurus such as Drucker (1993) and Brooking (1997) and practitioner icons such as Edvinsson, (1997) elucidated the notion of Intellectual Capital (IC). Knowledge and capital have been linked together for many years. Knowledge is being capitalized as a resource comparable to land or oil. However, we also need to focus on the intangible elements which knowledge contains such as employee skills, experiences, patients, copyrights, brands, licensing opportunities, research and development, innovative use of assets such as databases, etc. (Quintas et al, 1997). As these type of elements are not normally recorded on the traditional organizational balance sheet they are referred to Intellectual Assets; hence the term Intellectual Capital. KM is actively concerned with the strategic outlook and operational tactics required for managing human centered, intellectual assets (Brooking, 1997). According to Peters (1992), KM can affect intellectual capital or as recognizing or rediscovering assets that the organization are not using to full potential, ultimately employees. As these approaches imply that the key areas of KM are the management of IC it is worth reviewing a typical IC model. The model, shown below in figure no. 5, is the Intellectual Capital model from Skandia Insurance which is adopted from Chase (1997), and Roos and Roos (1997). According to Edvinsson and Malone, (1997) intellectual capital concsists the applied experience, organizational technology, customer relationships and professional skills that provide Skandia with a competitive advantage in the market. One problem that can be associated with this model is the adoption of a scientific approach to knowledge. This is evident through the classification of knowledge as a commodity linking it to organization capital. This view of intellectual capital ignores the political and social aspects of KM. KM can be decomposed into objective elements rather than being socio-political phenomena from the view of intellectual capital. This is similar to the Nonaka and Takeuchi, (1995) approach. As befits a new area of inquiry, much analytical work is focused on categorizing, mapping and measuring of knowledge types and processes. Although this is helpful, the epistemological basis of the field cannot be ignored (McAdam and McCreedy, 1999). Hence, we need to embrace socially constructed models of KM. Figure No. 4-Intellectual Capital Model of KM (Chase, 1997) Socially Constructed Models This group of models assumes a wide definition of knowledge viewing it as being intrinsically linked within the social and learning processes of the organization. KM is concerned with the construction, capture, interpretation, embodiment, dissemination and use of knowledge. These components are represented in Demerests (1997) Knowledge Management model. The model is developed from the original work of Clark and Staunton, (1989) and Nonaka and Takeuchi, (1995). It can be compared to that of Jordan and Jones, (1997) who speak of knowledge acquisition, problem solving, dissemination, ownership and storage and that of Kruizinga et al. (1997) who include knowledge policy, infrastructure and culture. Firstly, the model emphasizes the construction of knowledge within the organization. The model assumes that constructed knowledge is then embodied. Next the embodied knowledge is disseminated throughout the organization. Ultimately the knowledge is used to gain economic value with regard to organizational outputs. The black arrows in figure no. 5 show the primary flow direction while the white arrows show the more recursive flows. Figure No. 5 -Knowledge Management Model Demerest, (1997) Demerests model is attractive in that it does not assume any given definition of knowledge but rather invites a more holistic approach to knowledge construction. However, it does imply a simplistic procession approach to the flow of knowledge transfer, while in reality this may be extremely rapid and circulatory. To overcome this gap a slightly modified version of Demerests model has been developed, figure no. 6. Firstly the model emphasizes the construction of knowledge within an organization where either a scientific or social paradigm may be adopted. The scientific view of knowledge takes a knowledge is truth view (Morgan, 1986). This view considers that knowledge is a body of facts and rational laws thus promoting a non-personal view of knowledge, skills and tasks (Lave and Wenger, 1991). On the other hand the social view of knowledge is concerned with the social and learning processes within an organization. However, this approach assumes that knowledge construction is inequality, conflict, domination, subordination and manipulation influences as well as more traditional behavioral questions associated with efficiency and motivation (Alvesson and Wilmott, 1996). Thus social knowledge construction is a dynamic process of contextuality rather than the assimilation of a body of facts. In th e McAdam and McCreedys (1999) model depicted in figure no. 6, knowledge construction is not limited to scientific inputs through explicit programmes but includes a process of social interaction. The implications of this broader concept of knowledge construction must be reflected in the embodiment/dissemination of knowledge as part of the organizations KM approach. There is little point in widening the concept of knowledge construction only to limit the embodiment and dissemination techniques used or to force existing techniques onto new knowledge. Attempting to do so will lead to disappointing results, frustration and a negative view to KM caused by the mismatch between conception and application. Knowledge usage must also be reflected via the knowledge initiatives installed in the organization. Demerest (1997) describes use (as deployed in figure no. 6) as the production of commercial value for the customer. While increasing commercial value is a key objective of KM, it is not the only objective. Therefore knowledge use must be employed through the application of a complementary approach for emancipatory enhancements and organization outputs. This will permit the organization to be viewed and reformed from different perspectives that will facilitate continuous innovation, thus creating the ultimate business benefits for the organization as a whole. While the interconnecting vectors (black arrows) show the primary flow of activity, more recursive arrows are added to reflect the circulating nature of activity flows, thus depicting that KM is not a simple sequential process. Figure No. 6-Modified Version of Demerests Knowledge Management Model (McAdam and McCreedy, 1999) Knowledge Management Frameworks Stankosky and Baldanza (2001) developed a knowledge management framework which addresses enabling factors such as learning, culture, leadership, organization and technology (refer to figure no. 7). This framework presents that knowledge management covers a wide range of disciplines that include cognitive science, communication, individual and organizational behavior, psychology, finance, economics, human resource, management, strategic planning, system thinking, process reengineering, system engineering, computer technologies and software and library science. This framework consists four major foundations of an organization which is important for knowledge management are leadership, organization structure, technology infrastructure and learning. The role of leadership is practicing strategic planning and systems thinking approaches, making best use of resources, fostering a culture that encourages open dialogue and team learning, and for encouraging and rewarding risk taking, learning and knowledge sharing. Organization structure should facilitate personal interactions and support communities of practice to capture tacit and explicit knowledge within the organization. Besides, organizational structure should facilitate trust among people within the organization and encourage free exchange of knowledge. Technology infrastructure allows exchange of information without formal structures. Technology infrastructure should enhance the efficient and effective capture of both tacit and explicit knowledge. It should also support knowledge sharing in the entire organization. Lastly, learning is responsible for managing information in order to build enterprise wide knowledge and use that knowledge to organizational learning, change and performance improvement. Figure No. 7-Basic Disciplines Underlying Knowledge Management and its Enabling Factors (Stankosky and Baldanza , 2001) Karadesh et al. (2009) developed a knowledge management framework that emphasizes on developing phases such as knowledge infrastructure, knowledge combination, knowledge filtering, knowledge repository, knowledge sharing, knowledge application, and finally, knowledge performance across the KM process (refer to figure no. 8). The first element is knowledge infrastructure, which relies on building the proper culture for Knowledge Management System and establishes the awareness of the importance of KM among the individuals in the organization. The second element is knowledge combination that functions as a temporary repository of collected information from the infrastructure phase. The third element is knowledge evaluation which is used to assess the knowledge based on the value; accuracy and relevance after the knowledge have been combined from different sources (Sunassee and Sewry, 2002). Knowledge filtering is the fourth element that prepares knowledge to be stored in the next phase, after going through classification, categorization and organization. The fifth element is knowledge repository that functions as storage for the knowledge collected in the past stages. It also can be viewed as organization memory and retention of knowledge assets. Knowledge sharing is a core process in the process of the KM that transfers and shares knowledge among the individuals in the organization. Knowledge application is the seventh element that applies and represents information to knowledge seekers in appropriate matter. The last element is knowledge performance which is used to evaluate every KM system, process, performance, and impact of KM. It is performing according to the organization goals and objectives. Figure No. 8-Conceptual Framework for Knowledge Management Process (Karadesh et al., 2009) Conclusion The review of existing knowledge management models and frameworks has seen a wide spectrum of viewpoints. Knowledge management has been seen from the categorical view in which knowledge are categorized into discrete elements as seen in Boisot, Nonaka, and Nonaka and Hedlunds models to the more complicated and complex perspective of knowledge that is mechanistic and socially constructed orientation (McAdam and McCreedys, 1999). Moreover, these knowledge management models have made reference to: first, the process of managing the flow knowledge; second, categorization models are mechanistic; third, the intellectual capital model assumed that intellectual capital are crucial assets in organization and should be manage efficiently for firms success; fourth, Demerests model is intrinsically linked with the social and learning process within organizations; McAdam and McCreedys model is slightly modified from Demerests model, which seeks to address the limitations by explicitly showing the influence of both social and scientific paradigms of knowledge construction, and extends the use element to cover both business and employee benefits. Stankosky and Baldanzas knowledge management framework emphasized that leadership, organization structure, technology infrastructure and learning are important foundations for knowledge management in an organization; finally, Karadesh et al.s knowledge management framework represents with extensive and detailed processes and tends to provide guidelines for executing KM successfully, save time and efforts and to avoid inaccuracies. Even though knowledge management models and frameworks have evolved from time to time, basically the models and frameworks provide a way of transforming managerial activities and guiding managerial efforts in managing knowledge in the organizations. The KM model and framework that are suggested to act as a useful guide for further research and organizational application is McAdam and McCreedys model and Karadesh et al.s framework. McAdam and McCreedys model combines scientific and socially constructed knowledge, and also the uses/benefits of KM are viewed as both emancipatory and as business oriented. Karadesh et al.s framework provides a broadest analysis of KM process that can be used to foster the development of organization knowledge and enhance the organizational impact of individuals throughout the organizations. Therefore, it is suggested that this model and framework could act as a useful guide for further research and literature evaluation in the area of knowledge management.

Rates of Reaction Experiment :: GCSE Chemistry Coursework Investigation

Rates of Reaction Experiment INTRODUCTION This experiment is called ‘rates of reaction’, I will be partaking in this experiment to find out what factors effect the ‘rate of reaction’ between magnesium (strips) and hydrochloric acid. Each time I repeat the experiment, I will be adding 0.5 moles of hydrochloric acid and recording the volume of gas given out during the testing and record the time it takes to give the reaction needed. A reaction is taken place within the experiment because there is a collision of particles in each element. When these two elements collide with each other they form a chemical reaction ( a change which is irreversible) we know this because a gas is given of too show a change, this is why we record the amount of gas given off to show when the reactions takes place and how big of a change it has made. WORD EQUATION: Magnesium + Hydrochloric Acid à   à   Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen Acid CHEMICAL EQUATION Mg + 2HCl H2 + MgCl2 Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy, which the particles must have in order to react. There are five factors, which can make a difference to the rate of a reaction. *1* The surface of the element *2* Catalyst, the amount of the substance *3* The concentration of the element *4* Temperature, due the heat of the atmosphere *5* Pressure pronounced to the substance When a reaction takes place, the substances used are called reactants and the substances produced are called products. Because the amount of products being produced are increasing the number of reactants are or should be decreasing. To calculate if and how well products are increasing and reactants are decreasing we use a number of ways, we firstly find out how much of the reactant(s) is being used up and how much product(s) we are gaining from this in a set time. FORMULARS TO SOLVE THIS: *** How much reactant is being used up*** Amount of reactant being used up Reaction rate = Time taken ***How much product’s being produced in a set time*** Amount of product formed Reaction rate = Time taken A reaction can only take place when a successful collision is occurred, so for a reaction to take place two different elements have to concur with each other, this depends on the amount of atoms and energy in the two elements, this is called a successful collision. A chemical reaction can only take place when two different elements collide with each other. There are other methods to measure the rate (speed) of reaction. Precipitation: observe a marker through the solution and predict how long it takes to vanish. A change in mass: a mass balance can only be carried out during the

Prescription Discrimination :: Birth Control Drugs Medicine Essays

Prescription Discrimination Imagine this, you an eighteen year girl old who has decided to become sexually active with your long term boyfriend. This raises a lot of issues for you. While you are interested in beginning oral contraception you are not comfortable talking to your parents about sex. Even if you could talk to them, the chances they would pay for your birth control are slim to none. You do work but $30 a month for the pill on top of the cost of condoms takes up a large portion of your pay check. Do you decide to wait to be sexually active or do you take your chances? Consider a different scenario, you a married woman in your late thirties, with two children, who receives financial support from the state. Every month poses a new struggle when trying to pay the bills. On top of food, utilities, gas and the high cost of raising two children you do not have room for the cost of birth control. Although you love your children, you simply cannot afford to have another under any circumstances. Do you refrain from having sex with your husband or do you takes your chances? According to the Planned Parenthood web site, â€Å"approximately 70,000 unintended pregnancies occur in Massachusetts each year,† this makes it apparent that more women are choosing to take their chances over abstinence. For decades women have fought for equal rights in this country and countries all over the world. They have fought a tough fight and have come a long way. This makes a blatant message of sexual discrimination all the more outrageous in this day and age. The message is unequal health insurance coverage for women and even in the year 2003 it continues to be a serious issue. Woman nationwide are faced with a choice to either pay high prices for oral contraceptives or take a risk and go without them. On the contrary men are totally supported when looking for coverage of the newly popularized Viagra pill. Viagra is a new creation, which helps older men achieve and maintain an erection. Most insurance plans cover the cost of this drug. While men are covered on a drug that’s sole purpose is to enhance sexual pleasure, woman are unable to find coverage of a drug that necessary to not only avoid pregnancy but relieve menstrual cramping, clear up skin break outs, and regulate menstrual cycles.

Prince Hal in Shakespeares Henriad Essay -- William Shakespeare Henri

Prince Hal in Shakespeare's Henriad The question that Shakespeare raises throughout the series of Henry IV, Part I, Henry IV, Part II, and Henry V is that of whether Prince Hal (eventually King Henry V), is a true manifestation of an ideal ruler, and whether he is a rightful heir to his father’s ill-begotten throne. England is without a true king, being run by a ruler without the right of divine providence on his side– altogether, a very difficult situation for a young, inexperienced, and slightly delinquent Prince to take on. The task of proving himself a reliable Prince and a concerned ruler is of utmost importance to Hal, as he does not enjoy the mantle of divine right– perhaps by being an excellent ruler, Hal can make up for the usurpation of Richard II’s crown. Even though he is unable to change his ancestry, he may be able to gain God’s support by ruling justly, piously, and effectively. Robert Fallon defines this stage of England’s history as â€Å"an era when monarchs were expected to share with their soldiers the dangers of the battlefield, where strength of character was equated with strength of arm and a king’s ability to rule was measured by his ability to lead his armies in conquest,† and this is the mindset that Hal must deal with, moving from an irresponsible tavern dweller to a responsible ruler, fit to lead England with God’s support, if not his permission (Fallon, 111). The association of Prince Hal with dubious, tavern-dwelling creatures like Falstaff is a main point of contention between his supporters and detractors. Because the audience first meets the Prince in Henry IV, Part I, while he is carousing in the tavern with Falstaff, it is necessary for Shakespeare to indicate that Hal is not as enchanted with... ...stability and domestic tranquility. Works Cited Fallon, Robert Thomas. â€Å"Henry V: This Star of England.† A Theatrer-Goer’s Guide to Shakespeare’s Characters. Chicago, Illinois: Ivan R. Dee, 2004. 106-122. Ornstein, Robert. A Kingdom for a Stage: The Achievement of Shakespeare’s History Plays. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1972. Roe, John. â€Å"Henry V: The Prince and Cruelty.† Studies in Renaissance Literature: Shakespeare and Machiavelli. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2002. 63-93. Shakespeare, William. Ed. David Scott Kastan. Henry IV, Part I. London: The Arden Shakespeare, 2002. Shakespeare, William. Ed. A.R. Humphreys. King Henry IV, Part II. London: Methuen & Co., Ltd., and The Arden Shakespeare, 1981. Shakespeare, William. Ed. J.H. Walter. King Henry V. London: Metheun & Co., Ltd., and The Arden Shakespeare, 1954.

Education for Learners with Special Needs: Introduction to Organization and Planning Essay

In 1990, statistics showed that there were well over 43 million Americans with one or more physical or mental disabilities (Dixon, Kruse, & van Horn, 2003). Historically, society has isolated and segregated these individuals. After the passage of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and despite numerous laws and civil rights acts, discrimination against individuals with disabilities continues to be a serious social problem. This lecture briefly discusses the history of the laws and civil rights acts pertaining to Americans with disabilities i. e., how the laws and civil rights acts are being applied to learning in the educational system. Historical Factors That Shaped Special Education Today In 1975, Congress passed the Education of All Handicapped Children Act, now codified as the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) of 2004. When the Education of All Handicapped Children Act went into effect October of 1977 (after the regulations were finalized), it guaranteed a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment for all special education children and youth between the ages of 3 and 21. The numerous amendments to Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990 expanded incentives for early intervention, preschool special education programs, and transition programs. Currently, IDEA (2004) supports efforts through several programs to provide coordinated service delivery systems for children with disabilities from birth through age 5. The two major programs serving this population are the Early Intervention Program for Infants and Toddlers With Disabilities and the Preschool Grants Program (ages 3 through 5). The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA 1997) additionally established the Handicapped Infants and Toddlers Program for children from birth to their 3rd birthday. In the 1990s, Congress passed two important public laws. The first was the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, and the other was IDEA of 1990. The premise of these laws was to guarantee civil rights for all persons with disabilities. The aim of ADA was to prohibit discrimination against individuals with disabilities in employment, public services, and accommodations (Henderson, 2000). Today this law includes persons of any age having a physical or mental impairment that significantly limits one or more of life’s major functions. These impairments include communicable diseases; health conditions such as diabetes and arthritis; severe asthma or allergies; mental health and behavioral needs; attention deficit disorder; and other physical disabilities. IDEA (1990) not only changed the name of the Education of All Handicapped Children Act to Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, it also changed the word handicapped to disabled. The amendments to IDEA of 1990 guaranteed all children with disabilities available and accessible free appropriate public education designed to meet the needs of students with special needs. The definition of special education was also expanded to include instruction carried out in the classroom, at home, in hospitals and institutions, and other settings. Related services are provided based on the needs of the special education student to benefit from instruction. In 1997, IDEA was amended once again. The amendment strengthened the academic expectations and accountability of children with disabilities. It also bridged the gap between the curricula delivered to children in regular classrooms and the curricula delivered to children in special day classes, with greater emphasis placed on the inclusion of the disabled child in the regular classroom (Hawking, 2004). Organization The category of learning disabilities is a large one, incorporating many diverse types of disabilities. IDEA (2004) defines specific learning disability as: A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in a deficient ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. This term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. This term does not include children who have learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; intellectual disability; or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage (Knoblauch & Sorenson, 1998). Least Restrictive Environment Students with disabilities are entitled to a free appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). LRE focuses on the degree of integration with nondisabled peers. Least restrictive includes students from a full-time regular education classroom with a consultant services specialist, to students who are home- or hospital-bound, based on their severity of needs. Most students with LD are serviced in the teacher consultant model, push-in model, co-teaching model, pull-out model, learning center, or special day class. Planning Planning for special education begins with the individualized education plan (IEP) team. The IEP team is composed of parents, school nurse, school psychologist, regular education teacher, special education, and others invited by the school and/or parents to participate. The goal of the IEP, according to the National Information Center for Children and Youth With Disabilities (NICHCY, 1996), is to have a variety of individuals who are knowledgeable about the students and their evaluation and placement options. Conclusion. Many laws and litigations have shaped special education, as we know it today. The process of identification and placement has changed over the years and will continue to evolve as parents advocate for the rights of their children. Most students with LD are serviced in the regular classroom with some degree of support, whether it is consultation or pull-out. The IEP team decides the best services for each child on an individual basis.

Labor and American Football

The development of labor relations in American football has been marked by two periods in its century of existence.   During its beginning labor organizations were weakened by the fractured nature of the football league itself.   Various upstart leagues consistently threatened and weakened the original league, the National Football League (NFL) and at times put in danger the growth of the sport in the America. Yet, since the league consolidated in the second half of the century we have seen a new period in labor relations come to the forefront.   And while it was once held that players would probably never unionize, the player strikes in 1982 and 1987 and their results have proven past analysts predictions to be wrong.   The football of the 1980s and 90s was fraught with player/manager blowouts and the increasingly assertive nature of player’s organizations or player’s unions as they are now referred to came to the forefront. A Brief History of Football The big money problems facing the American football league today find its roots in the development of the sport and its growth in popularity as a notable aspect of American culture.   The incredible money making potential of professional football developed on principles of â€Å"rugby football ´Ã‚ ´ being played at universities in Eastern Canada and the United States. Professional American football can be said to have its starting point when William â€Å"Pudge ´Ã‚ ´ Heffelfinger was paid $500 by a club in Pittsburgh to play for them in a game.[1]   Towards the twentieth century the game would begin to accumulate loyal spectators across the country, though college football was the most popular form of spectator football.   Along with football’s growing popularity would come entrepreneurs eager to cash-in on the sport’s growth. The most significant signal of the sports growth was the forming of the National Football League (NFL) in 1920.   The NFL’s first official name was the American Professional Football Association and it was made up of five professional teams who’s main goal in uniting was to stop the stealing of team members from within their ranks.[2]   The cost of franchise was $25 and the teams met whenever it was determined that they could make money.[3]   In 1921 the group formally changed its name to the National Football league. It wasn’t long before the league was outshining college football and attendance at games went up radically.   Small-town teams got swallowed up by big-city teams and football and annual championships began in 1933.   The 1930s were extremely important in the development of the league. Gould and Staudohar state that, â€Å"Significant rules changes were introduced, most notably legalizing the forward pass from anywhere behind the line of scrimmage. Goal posts were put on the goal lines. And the league was divided into two divisions, leading to a championship playoff under regularized conditions at the end of the season.†[4] By the 1950s professional football was beating out college teams in the fight for spectators.   In addition, a new element had been added to the sport, television.   Television participation and attendance levels at games were constantly on the rise.   Fans turned on the tube and poured into stadiums to catch a glimpse of rising football stars such as Bobby Layne and Johnny Unitas.   In 1955 NBC paid $100,000, a 40 percent increase over the previous year, to televise the title game.[5] Since then football’s growth has been unstoppable and largely predominated by the NFL.   Currently the league is made up of thirty-two teams, which are divided into two conferences and then four sub-divisions.   At the nd of each year the league holds a twelve team tournament that eliminates the teams down to two teams which will play in the league’s most anticipated game of the year, the Super Bowl. Currently the NFL is â€Å"one of the most popular sports leagues in the United States, and has the highest per-game attendance of any domestic professional sports league in the world, drawing over 67,000 spectators per game for its most recently completed season in 2006.†[6] The Era of League Splits The rise of professional football and the revenues that came along with it would be accompanied by numerous attempts of upstart leagues to wrestle viewership from NFL games.   The first attempts were made under the auspice of a parallel group of teams titled the American Football Leagues (AFL).   Before 1941 there were three such attempts made by the AFL to upstage the NFL, none of which were successful. The last of these attempts was particularly unsuccessful and Gould and Staudohar claim that, â€Å"The new league was woefully undercapitalized and almost from its first games exhibited dire financial trouble. Missed payrolls became routine. Not surprisingly, the league folded early in its second season.†[7]   The most successful of these leagues was the All-American Football Conference which appeared at the close of the Second World War, when there was an influx of interest in spectator sports.   The league lasted for four years and at its close three of its teams joined the NFL and were moderately successful within that league. Continued growth in televised games and stadium attendance would result in the most significant attempts by alternate leagues to break in on the action in the mid-60s and later in the 80s.   Lamar Hunt created another version of the AFL, after his attempt to purchase an NFL franchise to bring to Texas backfired.   Hunt set out on an aggressive campaign to win spectator interest by introducing gimmicks such as â€Å"wider-open passing offenses, players' names on their jerseys, and an official clock visible to fans so that they knew the time remaining in a period (the NFL kept time by a game referee's watch, and only periodically announced the actual time).†[8] But it was the bidding war for players that almost brought the whole of American football on its knees.   Fortunately, and as a result of the expansion and costly players, the leagues merged in 1966.   By 1970 the teams from both leagues had formed to make up the NFL’s American Football Conference.   The AFL-NFL championship game became the Super Bowl.   The only other league to be created after that was the United States Football League that, despite heavy financing, important players and a television contract, went under within three years due to low revenues. Meanwhile the NFL, along with the Super Bowl and Monday Night Football became an important aspect of American life.   It was thought that a new era of co-operation between labor and football was on the rise but there were more problems to come. Part 2   The Era of the Player/Management Split For most of football’s beginning years the idea that sports professionals would form into unions was inconceivable to many.   Today it is clear that Unions are highly important to professional football and baseball players alike.   The forming of unions in so many walks of American life and their increasing power in society brought football players to the same conclusion millions of other working Americans came to: unions strengthened a worker’s rights and provided a buffer against the rampant financial interests of owners, whether they be factories or baseball franchises. Currently NFL players are members of the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA).   The main duty of this organization is to help construct the Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA), which sets the minimum contract for NFL players.   The association also helps to negotiate individual player contracts.   The association has been up and working since 1993 and has been integral in the player’s negotiations with team management.   It is also important to note that since its creation there has not been a full-out strike since the 1987 season, â€Å"which is much longer than Major League Baseball, the NBA or the NHL.†[9] With such a track record it is safe to say that unions are here to stay although it did not always look as though that would be the case.   Despite the positive outlook, after the NFL’s consolidation, some analysts predicted that there would be growing trouble between the franchises and their players.   Their predictions largely proved to be correct.   Gould and Staudohar claim that â€Å"This view was myopic†, and that in fact, â€Å"The mid- 1970s saw the emergence of arm's-length bargaining and the resulting collective bargaining agreements in the major sports.   []   Despite progress toward resolving some long-standing disputes, the true character of player/ management splits was just being revealed.†[10] Before the seventies there had been little leeway made in player negotiations on issues such as pension funds and insurance coverage.   The first league wide strike would occur in 1968 and would be formed on these very issues.   As the situation reached never-before-seen levels of intensity, the players refused to show up for pre-season practices.   Managers responded with a lockout.   Eventually the players came back to the field after having gained almost nothing.   Yet this strike would set the stage for those to come in 1974, 1982 and 1987. For the last forty years changes in areas such as free agency rules and salary levels have largely been fought using anti-trust law.   Some analysts claim that, in fact, there are more anti-trust issues within professional sports cases than in many other industries.[11]   Scremin claims that, â€Å"As a result of antitrust litigation, professional sport leagues and teams had to abandon or at least modify rules and policies governing their businesses. This is a trend with no signs of slowing down.†[12]   Yet, despite headway made in various cases involving anti-trust measures, the 1977 and 1982 NFL collective bargaining agreements are â€Å"two of the least effective agreements in professional sports on the issue of player mobility.†[13] It was during the 1982 strike that players gained the greatest ground in their battle with owners.   After a 57 day strike and a nine game season the Players Association won big concessions including a considerable raise in pay and the right to copies of individual contracts.[14]   Yet, issues such as free agency, pensions and severance pay remained on the bargaining table. The 1987 strike was a continuation of the demands of 1982 but this time around the player’s union was badly organized and many were reluctant to go on strike in the first place.[15]   The end result was that the players lost their check off privelege, in addition to be replaced by aspiring NFL players for a time.   Staudohar claims that, â€Å"By striking when so many players preferred not to, the union may have harmed itself.†[16] The strike of 1987 would be the beginning of a bitter relationship between the NFL Players Association and the NFL Commission.   The end result was that playing went on for six years without a labor deal and with considerable distrust between Gene Upshaw, head of the Players Association and Paul Tagliabue, Commissioner for the NFL.[17] By 1993 both sides were ready to talk and the end result was the granting of unrestricted free-agency rights for the players and a salary cap for the owners.   Fisher claims that, â€Å"The trade gave each side a key concession it had sought for years, but also tied them together at the hip. Veteran players finally could take full charge of their careers and maximize their incomes, but only within the overall limits set by the salary cap, which in turn reflects league revenues.†[18] Since then the contract has been re-signed with ease four times since 1993.   Currently the CBA covers areas such as the minimum salary for the league, the salary cap, the annual collegiate draft, and free agency rules.[19]   In May of 2006 the CBA was negotiated again with a salary cap of 94.5 million, 56.5% of football revenue to the players association and free agency for the players.   The talks were complicated by the talks around revenue-sharing policies of the owners.[20] Conclusion Labor relations within American football was largely put on hold for the first half of the century.   Struggles between the NFL and various aspiring football leagues such as the AFL took precedence over the creation of player’s unions.   It wasn’t until the second half of the century that the NFL would have to come face to face with player demands backed by an ever-strong NFLPA.   While the union suffered a set back in the 1987 strike by 1993 it had negotiated an essential issue for its players, free-agency.   Throughout the past forty years player’s unions have consistently fought against anti-trust measures and have to a great extent come out on top.   We can only wait to see what the future holds for them. Works Cited â€Å"Collective Bargaining Agreement Between the NFL Management Council and the NFL Player’s Association.†Ã‚   March 8. 2006,   nflpa.org Fisher, Eric.   â€Å"MLB Can Learn from the NFL: The Game Would Benefit If Owners/players Emulated Their Football Counterparts.†Ã‚   Insight on the News   January 7. 2002,   32-34. Forbes, Gordon.   â€Å"82 strike changed salary dealings forever.†Ã‚   USA Today   August 6. 2001,   http://www.usatoday.com/sports/comment/forbes/2001-06-08-forbes.htm Gould, William, B and Staudohar, Paul, D.   Labor Relations in Professional Sports.   Dover: Auburn House,   1986. â€Å"NFL sets paid attendance record.†Ã‚   NFL News   April 13. 2007,   http://www.nfl.com/news/story/9908132 Scremin, Glaucio.   â€Å"Impact of Antitrust Laws on American Professional Team Sports.† United States Sports Academy: The Sports Journal   2005, http://www.thesportjournal.org/2005Journal/Vol8-No1/SCJ_04_antitrust.asp Staudohar, Paul, D.   â€Å"The Football Strike of 1987: A Question of Free Agency.†Ã‚   Monthly Labor Review   111 (1988):   26-35. Weisman, Larry.   â€Å"NFL labor talks stall, free agency postponed again.†Ã‚   USA TODAY   May 3.   2006,  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.usatoday.com/sports/football/nfl/2006-03-05-labor-talks_x.htm [1] Gould, William, B and Staudohar, Paul, D.   Labor Relations in Professional Sports.   Dover: Auburn House,   1986: 88. [2] Gould and Staudohar, 89 [3] Gould and Staudohar, 89 [4] 91 [5] Gould and Staudohar, 92 [6] â€Å"NFL sets paid attendance record.†Ã‚   NFL News   April 13. 2007,   http://www.nfl.com/news/story/9908132 [7] Gould and Staudohar, 93 [8] Gould and Staudohar, 94. [9] â€Å"NFL sets paid attendance record.†Ã‚   NFL News   April 13. 2007,   http://www.nfl.com/news/story/9908132 [10] Gould and Staudahar, 2. [11] Scremin, Glaucio.   â€Å"Impact of Antitrust Laws on American Professional Team Sports.† United States Sports Academy: The Sports Journal   2005 [12] Scremin. [13] Gould and Staudohar, 109. [14] Forbes, Gordon.   â€Å"82 strike changed salary dealings forever.†Ã‚   USA Today   Aug 6. 2001,   http://www.usatoday.com/sports/comment/forbes/2001-06-08-forbes.htm [15] Staudohar, Paul, D.   â€Å"The Football Strike of 1987: A Question of Free Agency.†Ã‚   Monthly Labor Review   111 (1988): 26 [16] Staudohar, 26 [17] Fisher, Eric.   â€Å"MLB Can Learn from the NFL: The Game Would Benefit If Owners/players Emulated Their Football Counterparts.†Ã‚   Insight on the News   Jan 7. 2002: 33 [18] Fisher, 34 [19] â€Å"Collective Bargaining Agreement Between the NFL Management Council and the NFL Player’s Association.†Ã‚   March 8. 2006,   nflpa.org [20] Weisman, Larry.   â€Å"NFL labor talks stall, free agency postponed again.†Ã‚   USA TODAY   May 3.   2006,  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.usatoday.com/sports/football/nfl/20 06-03-05-labor-talks_x.htm